The term wine, or Cherem in
Phoenician,
is derived from a Phoenician word referring specifically to the fermentation
of
grapes. Wines were a specialty of the Phoenicians and their ancient Ugaritic
poetry and epics mentioned wine with ringing praise. The
Rapiuma and others were specific in identifying the choice wine of
Lebanon as being one nurtured by their god El and fit for gods and kings
(see right -- quotations from
said poetry). They must have learned about wine from earlier civilizations;
however, they perfected
viticulture
and
oenology
so
that
Phoenician wines became
prized commodities of the ancient world and a major source of revenue
in their exports.
Some scholars believe
that Vitis vinifera, originated in the Black Sea or the Caucasia region,
and spread south to
the Middle
East so that by
6,000 BC grape vines were being cultivated in Mesopotamia.
Around 3,000 wine cultivation spread to Phoenicia and, thereafter,
around 2,000 BC spread to Greece. Between 1000 BC and 500 BC, it reached
Europe and thereafter,
300 BC and 500 AD, the Romans took wine northward, all the way to Britain.
During The Middle Ages, wine-making was standardized and codified under
the disciplined eye of the church.
The Phoenician Canaanites
were avid wine drinkers. The Bible mentions that the Phoenician Canaanite
Melchizedek, King of Salem (King of Jerusalem) and Priest of the
Most High God
(El
Elion),
offered bread and wine to Abraham and Ezekiel refers to the wine of
Helbon as a unique commodity. Some believe that the village of Qana
(Cana) where Jesus turned water into wine at the wedding feast was
a town
near Tyre,
Phoenicia
and not elsewhere. Also, wine was central to the Passover observance
among the Jews and continues to be so. It was served for the Passover
of the Last Supper betwixt Jesus and his disciples and continues to
be
central
to Christian
Eucharistic
liturgy of the Mass.
Some of the
icons of Phoenician philosophy, Zeno of Citium and
Chrysippus
of
Soli, Phoenician
co-founder
of the
Stoic
School of Philosophy were "serious" wine drinkers. The
former's main enjoyment was sitting in the sun, eating figs and drinking
wine while
the latter is said to have died as a result of drinking too much
over proof wine.
The Egyptians never
succeeded in growing enough grapes to produce wine, a
drink foreign to the Egyptians, and relied on imports.
In fact, a fresco in an Egyptian tomb of the 18th dynasty depicts seven
Phoenician merchant ships anchored at an Egyptian port to sell their
goods, including the distinctive Canaanite wine jars in which wine was
imported. Egypt recorded the harvest of grapes on stone tablets and
the Egyptians drank wine from cups or from a jar through a straw. The
Pharaohs were especially fond of wine and some even had bottles buried
with them in order to make their journey to the
underworld more tolerable. Also, wines were given to dead kings,
so that they might entertain their friends in the afterlife. Wine was
a very social drink in Ancient Egypt and great importance was given to
its limited production and consumption.
Even
the Greeks couldn't offer
vintages to compare with the Phoenicians
until much later. At the table, most people drank their wine mixed
with water,
quite frequently half and half. So the opportunity to drink pure
wine at a ritual was a special occasion. This is why getting drunk
was so
special and originally considered a spiritual state, in which deities
could talk or act through the person in that condition. Some scholars
believe that Dionysus was originally from the Middle East, home of
wine and ecstatic worship. Also, in pagan worship, wine was used to
anoint idols.
Phoenician businessman
plied their trade across the seas of the ancient world. Wine
was one of their cargoes, and it was transported in
amphorae, stacked in racks aboard their ships. Wine in these containers
attracted flies and germs and soon went bad; so to keep the insects away,
a layer of olive oil was floated on top. This also preserved the wine
both by keeping the insects and bacteria at bay and by preventing oxygen
in the air from oxidizing the wine. This was
all fine until a storm blew up at sea. The wine spilled, which may
have done a lot to preserve the ships timbers and improve the atmosphere,
but did nothing for business. So a plug had to be found, and it took
the form of pinewood disks, which were bedded into the necks of amphorae
with a clay and resin mixture. Disks of cork may also have been used
with a similar bonding compound. The resinous wood
and sealing mixture flavored the wine as they came in contact with
rolling seas. The Phoenicians and Greeks came to believe that the resin
preserved the wine. Anyhow, a taste was acquired for it, which has
survived until this day, in the form of Retsina wine which is stored
in barrels with lumps of resin. Raisin wine eventually became a specialty
of Carthage.
In recent years,
nautical archaeology has been instrumental providing archaeological
record of Phoenician shipwreck and their cargo. Wine
jugs were found in the
hull of the oldest
ship ever discovered in deep water of the coast of Israel, thirty miles
off the Ashkelon coast. In 1999, Dr. Robert Ballard, the discoverer
of the Titanic, made an impressive discovery underwater using a special
robot and a side-scan sonar system. Ballard's team uncovered two well-preserved
Phoenician wine-laden cargo ships dating
back to the year 750 BC -- the oldest known deepwater shipwrecks.
Dr. Ballard reported
that one of the ships, the largest
ancient ship ever discovered measuring 60 feet (18 meters long) was
found 1625 feet (500 meters) under the Mediterranean. A smaller
ship was found
three kilometers away, measured forty-two feet (thirteen meters) in
length. Ballard
noted that the ships' contents included many ceramic amphorae were
originally filled with wine. Further, he suggested that they were on
their way
from the port of Tyre to either Egypt
or Tunisia
when they sank in a violent storm. The amphorae were found intact.
Owing to the bitterly cold water temperature, the lack of sunlight,
and intense pressure at such depths, the jars
were well preserved and in pristine condition. Even though the wood
of the vessels had disintegrated, the shape and length of the ships
were deduced from the position of the amphorae. From the
artifacts recovered -- amphorae, crockery for food preparation, an
incense stand for offerings to the weather gods,
and a wine decanter --
archaeologists were able to identify that the ship's
point of origin was Phoenicia.
Greek
The earliest evidence
of wine-making in Greece, which many believe was brought to Crete by
Phoenician traders, is a stone foot press at
Vathipetro,
a Minoan villa on Crete, dated to 1600 BC. The sophistication
of the site suggests that Minoan production of wine had been underway
for some time. Decoded Linear B tablets from the Minoan site at Knossos
in Crete revealed an advanced economy fueled by trade with Eastern
cultures. Wine was a subject of central importance in Greek poetry, art
and religion where Dionysus was the dedicated deity of this "elixir." Greek
islands were said to have their particular flavor of vintage, and the
two islands of Chios and Lesbos were said to have produced the best of
all
Greek wines. Wine from Chios was exported to all parts of the
known world, while
Lesbos exported Essenczian wine, which was very rare and sweet. Some mixed their
wines with seawater and various spices.
The Greek's taste
for different types of wines developed when they were exposed to wines
from other lands where their conquests took them. For
example, Greek officers and men in the Ptolemaic camp, who could afford
it, bought wine
like
the
one
they
had
tasted in
other
ports
in
the East,
mainly
Phoenicia, and North Africa, which had a long tradition of wines made
from sun-dried grapes. Locally grown and produced wines of Greece gained
popularity. It seems that Cretan wine became widely known during the
Hellenistic period,
even
though
there
was
no
organized
export
trade of
that particular Greek wine abroad in amphorae.
The
Greeks considered wine a privilege of the upper classes and it was
not consumed by ordinary citizens. Wealthy Greeks even invented a wine
tossing game that became quite fashionable at their dinner parties
and social gatherings. The game consisted of throwing the last
few mouthfuls of wine from a guest's cup into the air. The object was
to hit a delicately balanced dish on a pole with the "tossed" wine.
This game was very popular and Greeks even coached each other on the
best ways in which to play.
Cypriot
Several archeological records as well as ancient references and writings
have proved that the wine making in Cyprus had a an ancient tradition.
Homer speaks of the excellent quality of Cyprus wines and Stassinos,
the author of the "Cyprus Epic Songs",
writes that the cultivation of the grape vine in Cyprus dates back to
the early days of the Island's colonization in 3,000 BC by the Phoenicians.
The first reference to Cypriot wine
in the Bible is in Solomon's "Song
of Songs" 1:14 "My beloved is unto me as a cluster of Cyprus
in the vineyards of Engadi." The Pharaohs
of Egypt, as well as the Ancient Greeks
and
Romans imported Cypriot wines.
Recent excavations in Paphos
have yielded old coins with a representation of a vine on one side. These
date from the 3rd century BC and indicate that even in those days, wine
was a major source of the island's wealth.
An old Cypriot chalice
of the 6th century BC recommended its user to "Be
happy and drink well," signifying the quality of wine in the life
of Cyprus. Mosaics discovered in ancient sites on the island bear witness
to the importance of Cyprus grapes and the wines they produced.
Roman
The
Romans learned from the Phoenician/Punic and Greeks to appreciate
the consumption and production of wine. They placed great importance on
the cultivation of vines and the production of wine. During the
height
of the Roman
Empire,
the production
of wine
spread throughout most of Europe including such places as France, Spain,
Italy and even parts of Britain. Initially, they imported their wines from
Phoenicia, Greece, Cyprus and the Phoenician Punic colonies of Carthage,
Cyprus, Sardinia and the Punic territories of Spain. They prized Raisin wine
from Carthage which was known for that particular type of wine.The Roman deity
of wine was
Bacchus
who received special recognition for his gift during their
festivals.
During Roman times, wine ceased to be an exclusive commodity of the rich
and became available to the population in all its classes. Cities such
as Pompeii
had bars on most of its streets that catered wine to the masses. Slaves
and lower classes had access to what was actually wine
vinegar diluted in water called Posca.
Roman wine was sweetened with honey and, perhaps, sweet communion wine
that is used in Byzantine liturgy today has its roots in the pagan Roman
turned Byzantine Christian culture after Emperor Constantine converted
to Christianity. Other varieties of Roman wines were flavored with
fermented fish sauce, garlic,
herbs and
onion.
Some
wines were flavored with flowers, roses, spices and mint even to
include
Absinthe.
The Roman empire
ran a worldwide trade in wines in most of the regions still renown
for wine making, including Gaul (France),
where they planted the vineyards which gave rise to the great French
wine industry. Roman vintages were discussed in literature
and records abound. The first historically great Roman wine
was called Opimian (produced about 121 BC). Throughout the ages,
sailors have spread the fame of the wines they have drunk in various
ports. The historian Polybius, who was a soldier and a mercenary, also
traveled on military ships. He was at the side of Scipio Aemilianus when
the Romans besieged Carthage.
Wine, like water
in a lesser degree, in Roman cities was a poison in disguise. The Roman
aristocracy drank wines imported from Phoenicia
and other places or stored from local vintages in
large clay
amphorae, which
were sealed with ceramic glaze that contained high quantities of
lead. The
acids in the wine dissolved some of the lead that ended up in
the stomach of the drinker. Archaeological evidence in the remains
of the ruling classes have a lead content in their bones high enough
to have been lethal. The
remains of peasants did not have high lead content; they drank
from wine stored in goatskins. However, everyone drank from the
same lead-lined Roman aqueducts that provided water to the cities. But
cold water does not dissolve lead appreciably; nevertheless, lead content
in most Romans was higher than others who did not employ lead in food-
or drink-related fixtures, reservoirs or utensils.
Sardinian
Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, the vine in Sardinia was imported by
the Phoenicians. Confirmation of this comes from the archaeological
records of prehistoric sites where
precious grape-pips have been found in different nuraghi stratifications
-- dating back to Phoenician colonization of the island.
The Phoenicians settled
in coastal zones of Cagliari, of Sulcis area, of Sinis area where they
took advantage of the geographic position to
increase their trades in the Mediterranean basin. However, when the Phoenician
Punic colonizers i.e. the Carthaginian, replaced their original forefathers
in Sardinia, they destroyed many vineyards to protect wines of their
colony, Carthage and they increased the cultivation of the vine that
became the most important cultivation in colonies such as Karalis, Tharros,
Cornus, Nora and Olbia. Archaeological evidence of this Punic presence
in the form of wine amphorae was found in Cagliari’s necropolis.
It is also know that Hamilcare, Hannibal’s son, would have come
here to stay and cultivate the vine.
Spanish
-- The Valdepeñas
Discovery
Right
in the heart of Spain there is a wine region known as Valdepeñas
that, in the light of recent archeological discoveries, is helping to
rewrite history. The history of wine as we know it is age-old and painted
on a vast scale, stemming from prehistory. To gain a better perspective
on the significance of these finds it is best to take a step back and
look at the broader canvas.
Spain's role in the
propagation of wine culture in Western Europe has always been acknowledged
as being
important. The Valdepeñas discoveries
have added a dramatic, new dimension to what was already a fascinating
story. Phoenician traders are credited
with having spread, from Tyre to Cádiz. The three columns on which
modern wine-making is constructed: Vitis vinifera pontica, Vitis vinifera
occidentalis and
Vitis vinifera orientalis. Most evidence suggests that the introduction,
via the Ebro (Spain's largest and longest river), of Vitis vinifera pontica
led to the birth of Europe's best white grape varieties. Vitis vinifera
occidentalis appears to have been the precursor of the best red varieties,
including Tempranillo, Pinot Noir and Cabernet Sauvignon.
All of this vinous
activity took place on or near the coast, the areas favored by Phoenicians.
The Valdepeñas discovery has cast a fresh
light on this knowledge. It was while excavating a site known as Cerro
de las Cabezas that archaeologist, Dr Javier Pérez Avilés,
came across his find. Digging down, he uncovered evidence of an ancient
Iberian city. As is the case with most digs, the further down you dig,
the older the layers of the past revealed. At strata levels equivalent
to 500 BC, he discovered substantial amounts of Phoenician ceramics and
artifacts. Digging further down, reaching strata levels pertinent to
700 BC he found, much to his delight, evidence of sophisticated wine-making
facilities.
What this evidence
suggests is that early Iberian inhabitants of Valdepeñas
had acquired the knowledge of how to cultivate the vine and how to turn
it into wine at a remarkably early date. One has to bear in mind that
Valdepeñas is far inland
and nowhere near the Ebro Valley. For an advanced wine culture to have
existed here at such an early date implies certain rewriting of history.
Although it is still early days in terms of coming to firm conclusions,
what is absolutely clear is that the region of Valdepeñas has
been at the heart of European wine-making for far longer than anyone suspected.
It should come as
no surprise that early wine makers should have chosen Valdepeñas as a wine-making haven, though. Today, 28 centuries
later, Valdepeñas is still a vinicultural center of world importance.
Mallorcan
There is evidence to suggest that wine-making in Mallorca goes back as
far as the early Phoenician settlement, and it may have preceded mainland
vinicultural activity. Certainly some of the island's grape varieties
appear to have links with ancient varieties associated with early Phoenician
plantings. Mallorca's oldest surviving winery was founded in 1711,
although the wine-making tradition had existed long before. In his
time, Lo Crestia
Catalán moralist Françesc Eiximenis declares that his favorite
wines are sweet vintages from the Phoenician strongholds of Cyprus, Crete
and Mallorca.
